Abstract
In 2004 a questionnaire about déjà vu was made available on the World Wide Web in order to gather information about the various forms of déjà experience. In this paper, some of the results derived from 1602 data sets collected since then will be presented.
Introduction
I suspect that almost everyone reading this is aware that a film called “Déjà Vu” and starring Denzel Washington came out last year (2006). Some may also remember the 1985 film by that name that starred Jaclyn Smith and Shelley Winters, among others, and that there was also one in 1998 with Vanessa Redgrave (also among others). Most would not know, though, that there was a 1992 Polish whodunit called “Déjà Vu”. Turning to popular music, there have been several songs and even albums called “Déjà Vu”. As of this writing, the most recent one is by Byonce that can be seen on the World Wide Web (http://www.metrolyrics.com/deja-vu-lyrics-beyonce-knowles.html). There the lyrics are available and the tune can even be downloaded as a cell phone ring tone as well. Older rock/folk fans may remember the wonderful 1970 “Déjà Vu” album by Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young. I could name a lot more but I am sure you get the idea.
In popular print, one can hardly open a magazine or newspaper these days without finding the words “déjà vu” (French for “already seen”) somewhere in some connection or other. It seems the Denzel Washington film prompted an article to which I contributed about déjà vu in the New York Times Magazine section (July 2, 2006). Half a year later there was also one in a German magazine (ZEIT Wissen, Jan./Feb. 2007 issue – I helped edit that one). I was also interviewed (for five minutes) on the BBC Radio 2 Chris Evans show, so there does seem to be a lot of interest in this topic. An excellent review is available on the Internet (Brown, 2003). In it the author, a professor of psychology at Southern Methodist University, has provided a comprehensive overview of what has been thought and said about this topic, including an extensive bibliography. He enlarged this into a book, the déjà vu experience (Brown, 2004) which is also well worth adding to your library.
For the past 27 years, however, I have been arguing that when it comes to the phenomenon commonly called “déjà vu” we should become more accurate in our terminology (cf. Funkhouser, 1995). Dr. Vernon Neppe, originally from South Africa but now head of the Pacific Neuropsychiatric Institute in Seattle, has come up with a list of 26 different types of what he (and I) call “déjà experiences”, all of which might be called “déjà vu” (hence the word “phenomena” [plural] in the title of this paper instead of “phenomenon” [singular] (cf. Neppe, 1983).
Beginning with St. Augustine (Augustine, 4th century) there have been many hypotheses put forward in the scientific and popular literature (and on numerous web pages) as to what causes this intriguing experience (or these intriguing experiences), but there has been a problem because those making such suggestions have often claimed that what they were proposing was the sole explanation for déjà experience as a whole while, in fact, it may well be that each type has its own origin. This is the principle reason that I would like to see us talking and writing about these experiences in a more differentiated way.
To my mind, in fact, it is too early to say anything definite about déjà experiences and their causes because at this point in time we simply do not know enough about them. Most of the notions that have been proposed as explanations have been based on anecdotal accounts from one or just a few people. Up until recently, this was the only possibility – funding for this type of research tends to be sparse! Now, with the Internet and the World Wide Web, however, it is possible to acquire data in amounts and to a geographic extent that was unthinkable only a few years ago. The hope is that as we learn what sorts of such experiences are “out there in the real world”, though, we will someday have a better chance of explaining them.
The situation is even more complicated: It may be that déjà experiences that last only a short time differ in their origin and how they are experienced than ones that last a much longer time. There is also the problem that what took place during the experience is remembered by some and not by others. Some such experiences are accompanied by physical phenomena like headaches and/or nausea while others are not. According to medical literature it seems some occur while the person is fatigued but others report the opposite. Thus any acquisition of data which tries to be fair to the multiplicity and complexity of déjà phenomena has to take factors like these into account.
If one just wants to see what the incidence of déjà vu (of whatever type) is in the general population, there have been numerous surveys made. Table 1 shows a synopsis that I have been compiling (a similar table is given in Brown, 2003, p 397) . One sees from it that the best figure for incidence in the general, healthy adult population is roughly 64% while among young, college-aged persons, the incidence rises dramatically to just under 85%! Although it has not been definitely shown, it would seem that young people have better memories of their déjà experiences and/or are more willing to admit having them.
|
Author(s) and date of publication |
Population |
No. of subjects |
Incidence |
|
Wiedemeister (1871) |
Normal, healthy adults |
N. A. |
33% to 50% |
|
Osborne (1884) |
Normal, healthy adults |
N. A. |
~ 50% |
|
Lalande (1893) |
Normal, healthy adults |
100 |
30% |
|
Bernhard-Leroy (1898) |
Normal, healthy adults |
85 |
30% |
|
Harper (1969) |
Normal, healthy adults |
91 |
62.2% |
|
Greeley (1975) |
Normal, healthy adults |
1467 |
59% |
|
Palmer & Dennis (1974) |
Normal, healthy adults |
357 |
68% |
|
McCready & Greeley (1976) |
Normal, healthy adults |
1526 |
61% |
|
Neppe (1979) |
female members of a S. African club |
84 |
96% |
|
Kohr (1980) |
A. R. E. members |
406 |
83% |
|
Neppe (1983) |
Normal, healthy adults |
28 |
67.9% |
|
Greeley (1987) |
Normal, healthy adults |
1473 |
67% |
|
Gallup & Newport (1991) |
Normal, healthy adults |
1236 |
55% |
|
Fox (1992) |
Normal, healthy adults |
3885 |
66.1% |
|
Levin (1993) |
Normal, healthy adults |
1456 |
67.3% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
American scientists (AAAS members) |
339 |
59% |
|
Sno et al., (1994) |
Normal, healthy adults |
59 |
71.2% |
|
Franze & Koschnitzki (1997) |
Normal, healthy adults |
76 |
78.9% |
|
|
total and mean percentage: |
12668 |
63.85% |
Table 1: Various survey results (in chronological order) of healthy adults according to the population studied
|
Heymans (1904, 1906) |
University students |
88 |
62.5% |
|
McKellar & Simpson (1954) |
University students |
110 |
71% |
|
McKellar (1957) |
University students |
182 |
69.23% |
|
Buck & Geers (1967) |
University students |
91 |
96% |
|
Buck (1970) |
University students |
49 |
98% |
|
Myers & Grant (1972) |
University students |
175 |
62.3% |
|
Palmer & Dennis (1974) |
University students |
268 |
88% |
|
Rauwald (1984) |
University students |
42 |
98% |
|
Behrendt (1988) |
Police trainees |
130 |
67.7% |
|
Krafft (1990) |
Medicine students |
104 |
66% |
|
Jansen (1989) |
High school students |
109 |
87.2% |
|
Schmutte (1990) |
Psychology students |
86 |
82.6% |
|
Roberts et al. (1990) |
Undergraduate students |
484 |
87% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
University of Maryland students |
214 |
89% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
University of North Carolina students |
532 |
86% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
ECSU (African-American students) |
391 |
80% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
Tsukuba University students (Japan) |
132 |
88% |
|
McClenon (1994) |
students from 3 Chinese universities |
314 |
64% |
|
|
total and mean percentage: |
3501 |
84.85% |
Table 2: Various survey results (in chronological order) of college-aged subjects according to the population studied
There is also the problem of distinguishing those forms of déjà experience that are normal from those which arise from some condition which requires medical attention. For a long time, medical textbooks associated déjà vu with temporal lobe epilepsy. This was due to the work of Dr. John Hughlings Jackson (1889), the father of modern neurology. Recently, Dr. Chris Moulin of Leeds University in the U.K. has published papers in which he speaks of “chronic” déjà vu (among elderly, demented patients), in effect, declaring thereby all cases of what one might call continuous déjà vu to be pathological. Fortunately, we now know that there are plenty of déjà experiences that are not due to epilepsy, and I am in touch with a person who claims to have continuous (she terms it perpetual) déjà vu and who is neither demented nor otherwise mentally ill. Table 2 summarizes the results of surveys that have been made with persons suffering from various forms of mental illness.
|
Lennox & Cobb (1933) |
all epilepsy patients |
750 |
0.0013% |
|
Chapman & Mensh (1951) |
hospital patients |
220 |
33% |
|
Cole & Zangwill (1963) |
temporal lobe epilepsy patients |
110 |
12% |
|
Richardson & Winokur (1967) |
neurology patients |
161 |
40% |
|
Richardson & Winokur (1967) |
psychiatric patients |
301 |
44% |
|
Richardson & Winokur (1968) |
personality disorder patients |
11 |
81% |
|
Richardson & Winokur (1968) |
situational and adjustment reactions |
5 |
80% |
|
Brauer, Harrow & Tucker (1970) |
psychiatric patients |
84 |
92% |
|
Greyson (1977) |
schizophrenic patients |
20 |
65% |
|
Greyson (1977) |
"nonschizophrenic" patients |
65 |
51% |
|
Neppe (1983) |
"neuropsychiatric" patients |
48 |
73% |
|
Sengoku, Toichi & Murai (1994/1997) |
temporal lobe epilepsy patients |
104 |
6.7% |
|
Sno et al. (1994) |
outpatients with major depression |
48 |
72.9% |
|
Sno et al. (1994) |
adolescents with schizophrenia |
42 |
76.2% |
|
Sno et al. (1994) |
temporal lobe epilepsy patients |
64 |
71.9% |
Table 3: Incidence of déjà vu among various clinical populations
In my work, I have been mainly concerned in looking at the three types of déjà experience that I think are most frequently encountered, namely “déjà vécu” (already lived through), “déjà visité” (already visited), and déjà senti (already felt) (Funkhouser, 1995). In the present investigation, I was interested in seeing if déjà vécu and déjà visité could be shown to be distinct or if they are basically the same. As a Jungian, I have also been interested in seeing if there is some influence of psychological type (thinking, feeling, sensing, intuitive) and/or whether one is extraverted or introverted on what is experienced (those interested in finding out their Jungian type can take the Myers-Briggs test which is available on-line at http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes1.htm). As someone interested in dreams and dreaming, I am also interested in seeing if people having these sensations see dreams, precognitive or otherwise, as a source for what they are experiencing (Funkhouser, 2004).
For a presentation at the 2006 IASD meeting (Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Mass.) an initial look at the data was made based on the 1056 data sets that were available at that time. The pie charts of the PowerPoint presentation that were shown then can be seen at http://silenroc.com/dejavu/iasd06/img0.html.
Method
In order to learn more about what people are experiencing, Harry Bosma and I put a questionnaire up on the World Wide Web (http://silenroc.com/dejavu ) with the hope of acquiring much more information than what has been available previously. This must be seen as a pilot attempt (actually, it is a second attempt – Kei Ito of Birmingham University in the UK was the first to put such a survey up on the Internet and I am grateful to him for the idea of doing so – cf Ito, 2000). In his diploma thesis, Ito (2000) wrote that he was not the first to use the Internet for parapsychological research. He cites Göritz and Schumacher (2000) as ones who pioneered using the Internet in this way. He also refers to the paper by Buchanan and Smith (1999) in which they discuss the use of the Internet for psychological research (see also http://construct.haifa.ac.il/~azy/refmetho.htm for a comprehensive bibliography).
It was clear from the outset that one cannot obtain information about the incidence in the general population with this approach because only those who have had (or are having) such experiences would take the trouble to track down and fill out such a survey in the first place, and I think it is generally agreed that those who use computers and the Internet are a special breed as well. The assumption underlying the survey is that persons having déjà vécu experiences and those having déjà visité experiences will be equally motivated to find and fill out the questionnaire. Whether this is true or not needs to be investigated. If we assume it is true, then we can hope to tease out the differential incidence of these two forms of déjà experience and have a look at some of the characteristics they have in common and possibly some that distinguish the one from the other.
Results
The déjà vu questionnaire became available on-line on Oct. 15th, 2004. As of July 3rd, 2007, 1846 persons had accessed it. After cleaning out questionnaires that had not been completely filled out and 20 duplicates, there were 1602 usable data sets from over 80 countries around the world. As of July 3, 2007 677 men and 904 women had taken the trouble to fill out the survey questions (21 persons refused to divulge their gender [or were not sure what it was]). The age distribution of 1589 respondents is shown in Figure 1 (13 refused to say how old they were). Figure 2 shows the levels of education that the respondents had (here there were 40 abstentions). There were 82 who said that they had been diagnosed as having temporal lobe epilepsy and 1418 who denied having any such diagnosis (102 must have been unsure or did not wish to answer for some other reason). Figure 3 shows the distributions of the psychological types as reported by the 1578 who filled out the questionnaire (with 24 who provided no answer). Regarding introversion versus extraversion, there were 620 who felt themselves to be more introverted, 352 who said they were extraverted and 593 who believe their makeup represents a balance between these two modes (37 provided no answer). It must be born in mind that these results do not represent distributions of persons having such experiences as much as they are distributions of persons using the World Wide Web. 
Figure 1: Age distribution of the questionnaire respondents
Figure 2: The levels of education of the questionnaire respondents
Figure 3: The psychological types (self-reported) of the questionnaire respondents
More sophisticated statistical analyses showed both quantitative and qualitative differences in déjà vu experiences. First, similar to other aspects of parapsychological experiences and beliefs such as transliminality (Lange, Thalbourne, Houran & Storm, 2000), paranormal belief (Lange, Irwin & Houran, 2000), mystical experience (Lange & Thalbourne, 2002), haunt experiences (Houran & Lange, 2001; Houran, Wiseman & Thalbourne, 2002) and near-death experiences (Lange, Greyson & Houran, 2004), the individual perceptions or modalities that defined déjà vu experiences formed a probabilistic hierarchy. In other words, it was confirmed that déjà vu involves a collection of seemingly different types of experiences. Moreover, there was an underlying structure in the likelihood that some of these experiences would be reported more often than others. According to Dr. James Houran whose team performed the independent statistical analysis, this finding that déjà vu experiences can be modeled as a mathematical hierarchy (called Rasch scaling) and thus measured in terms of the intensity has never been reported in the literature for déjà vu experiences. Second, while this structure is generally consistent across experients, there are some significant gender differences. For instance, the women in the sample reported significantly (z > 1.96, p < .05) more types of déjà vu experiences (M = 3.45) than the men (M = 3.01). In this respect, women’s reports of déjà vu experiences are more intense than those of men. There were qualitative differences in experiences as well: women were more likely to report visual and olfactory experiences, whereas men were more likely to report taste and auditory sensations. Tables 4a and b provide the Rasch scale hierarchies for the déjà experience modalities for men and women (to learn about Rasch scale
hierarchies, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasch_model ).
|
|
Men |
|
|
Modality |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Higher likelihood of being experienced |
-3.87 |
General déjà experience -Taste |
|
|
|
-3.78 |
General déjà experience -Sight |
|
|
|
-0.02 |
General déjà experience -Hearing |
|
|
|
3.43 |
General déjà experience -Touch |
|
|
Lower likelihood of being experienced |
4.31 |
General déjà experience -Smell |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 4a: Probabilistic hierarchy of déjà vu experiences for men.
|
|
Women |
Modality |
|
|
|
|
|
Higher likelihood of being experienced |
-4.12 |
General déjà experience - Sight |
|
|
-3.73 |
General déjà experience -Taste |
|
|
0.41 |
General déjà experience -Hearing |
|
|
3.51 |
General déjà experience -Touch |
|
Lower likelihood of being experienced |
3.93 |
General déjà experience -Smell |
Table 4b: Probabilistic hierarchy of déjà vu experiences for women.
Epilepsy
There were some surprising findings with déjà vu experiences between those diagnosed with epilepsy versus those without epilepsy. For instance, epilepsy was associated with fewer déjà vu experiences (Ms = 2.59 vs. 3.30, z > 1.96, p < .05). Moreover, Tables 6a and 6b show that the internal structure or hierarchy of déjà vu modalities changes slightly with an epilepsy diagnosis. Specifically, epilepsy seems to make “taste” experiences easier to have or to report, “visual” experiences harder to have or to report, and “auditory” experiences harder to have or to report.
|
|
Yes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Higher likelihood of being experienced |
-4.87 |
General déjà experience -Taste |
|
|
|
-2.55 |
General déjà experience - Sight |
|
|
1.43 |
General déjà experience -Hearing |
|
|
|
3.41 |
General déjà experience -Touch |
|
|
Lower likelihood of being experienced |
3.56 |
General déjà experience -Smell |
|
Table 6a: Probabilistic hierarchy of déjà vu experiences for epileptics.
|
|
No |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Higher likelihood of being experienced |
-4.15 |
General déjà experience -Sight |
|
|
|
-3.70 |
General déjà experience -Taste |
|
|
0.14 |
General déjà experience -Hearing |
|
|
|
3.49 |
General déjà experience -Touch |
|
|
Lower likelihood of being experienced |
4.09 |
General déjà experience -Smell |
|
Table 6b: Probabilistic hierarchy of déjà vu experiences for non-epileptics.
Personality Types
Using the Rasch hierarchy model for intensity of déjà vu experiences identified above, an Analysis of Variance (F 4, 1557 = 11.24, p < .001) revealed an overall significant mean difference for personality type (Intuition, Thinking, Sensation, Feeling). Table 5 shows the respective means. Pairwise comparisons using a Bonferroni correction for multiple observations revealed only a statistically significant difference between the mean scores for Intuition versus the other three types. There were no significant differences among the déjà vu scores for Thinking, Sensation and Feeling.
|
Personality Type |
Mean |
Standard Error |
|
Intuition |
4.50 |
.25 |
|
Feeling |
3.30 |
.16 |
|
Thinking |
2.87 |
.11 |
|
Sensation |
2.67 |
.48 |
Table 5: Mean scores on déjà vu for four personality types.
Introversion vs. Extraversion
Using the Rasch hierarchy model for intensity of déjà vu experiences identified above, it was found that the mean déjà vu scores for Introverts vs Extroverts (and those who did not indicate being an introvert). The Extrovert group (M = 3.30, SE = .14) scored significantly higher (z > 1.96, p < .05) on déjà vu experiences than the Introvert group (M = 2.87, SE = .11). In other words, the Extrovert group reports significantly more types or modalities of déjà vu experiences than Introverts. This result is consistent with the general findings that extroverts score higher on psi tasks than introverts.
Discussion
Unfortunately, with the available analysis procedures, it was not possible to determine whether déjà vécu and déjà visité are separate forms of déjà experience or basically the same. That is, the data were collected in a format that was unsuitable for rigorous statistical tests of dimensionality (see e.g., Lange et al., 2000). On the other hand, as we have seen, a number of interesting findings turned up in the results. It is hoped that further analysis of the data will turn up other facets of interest.
This questionnaire was created as a pilot project. Given the results obtained thus far and others which the data may yield, a more sophisticated questionnaire can now be devised in an attempt to more clearly separate out the various forms of déjà experience.
That so many around the world have taken the trouble to find and fill out the questionnaire (and continue to do so almost daily) indicates the interest that exists for these phenomena. Anyone wishing to join in on this research effort is cordially invited to do so. My hope is that as we continue this research, we shall be able to provide a resource for people wishing to understand more about what they are experiencing and that those whose experiences are in some way pathological will be guided to seek the professional help they may require.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his gratitude to Harry Bosma for his help and expertise in HTML and PHP programming which made the on-line questionnaire possible. He also provided the webhosting for it. The author would also like to thank James Houran, former instructor of clinical psychiatry at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, and his team for all the work they have done in analyzing the questionnaire data and presenting the results of their analysis.
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